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[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]//-->E-bookFUNDAMENTALSOF PHONETICSAND PHONOLOGYУпоряд�½ик Віталій Бара�½This is a limited ‘swf’ version of the bookAll rights reservedFundamentals of Phonetics and PhonologyCONTENTSPhonetics as a science. Phoneme .......................................................... 4Physiology of speech. Subglottal system.............................................. 6The larynx ............................................................................................. 6Above the larynx .................................................................................. 7Classification of speech sounds ............................................................ 8Syllabic consonants .............................................................................. 8Phonetic alphabet .................................................................................. 9English vowels: monophthongs and diphthongs ................................ 11Phonogram .......................................................................................... 12Classification of vowels...................................................................... 13Classification of consonants ............................................................... 18Word stress ......................................................................................... 24Placement of stress within a word ...................................................... 24Levels of stress ................................................................................... 25Words with two primary stresses ........................................................ 25Stress in compound words .................................................................. 26Junction of speech sounds .................................................................. 27Merging of stages. ............................................................................. 27Interpenetration of stages.................................................................... 27The syllable ........................................................................................ 29Syllable formation .............................................................................. 29Syllable division ................................................................................. 30Types of syllables ............................................................................... 30Modification of English vowels. Reduction ....................................... 32Elision ................................................................................................. 33Modification of English consonants. Assimilation ............................. 34Historical and Living Assimilation..................................................... 35Loss of plosion. Nasal and lateral plosion .......................................... 36Linking and intrusion.......................................................................... 37Juncture............................................................................................... 38Intonation-group ................................................................................. 39Intonation ............................................................................................ 41Linguistic functions of intonation....................................................... 41The anatomy of intonation patterns .................................................... 42The Head. Descending heads…………………………………………………………..43© Віталій Бара�½Ascending heads ................................................................................ 44Level heads ........................................................................................ 44The Nucleus ....................................................................................... 45The Pre-Head ..................................................................................... 46The Tail .............................................................................................. 46Intonation of statements ..................................................................... 47Intonation of special questions ........................................................... 47Intonation of general questions .......................................................... 48Intonation of imperatives ................................................................... 48Intonation of exclamations ................................................................. 49Intonation of adverbial phrases .......................................................... 49Intonation of enumeration .................................................................. 50Sequence of tones in disjunctive questions ........................................ 50Sequence of tones in alternative questions......................................... 51Intonation of direct address ................................................................ 51Intonation of parentheses ................................................................... 52Intonation of author‟s words .............................................................. 52Sequence of tones in compound sentences ........................................ 53Sequence of tones in complex sentences............................................ 53Sentence stress ................................................................................... 54Sentence stress and tonic syllables ..................................................... 56Rhythm ............................................................................................... 58Tempo of speech ................................................................................ 60Emphatic intonation ........................................................................... 61Список літератури ............................................................................ 622Fundamentals of Phonetics and PhonologyРеце�½зе�½ти© Віталій Бара�½Михайле�½ко І. П.,ка�½дидат педагогіч�½их �½аук, доце�½т кафедри і�½озем�½ихмов та компаративістики Дрогобицького держав�½ого педагогіч�½огоу�½іверситету іме�½і Іва�½а Фра�½ка.Дашко Л. Т.,старший викладач кафедри а�½глійської філологіїДрогобицького держав�½ого педагогіч�½ого у�½іверситету іме�½і Іва�½а Фра�½ка.У �½авчаль�½о-методич�½ому посіб�½ику висвітлюються ос�½ов�½іположе�½�½я фо�½етич�½ої теорії а�½глійської мови. Більшість розділівсупроводжуються практич�½ими вправами. Матеріал відібра�½ий увідповід�½ості до програми держав�½ого ста�½дарту і подається у логіч�½о-зростаючому порядку за своєю склад�½істю і структурою, що дозволитьстуде�½ту-філологу систематизувати свої з�½а�½�½я з практич�½ої фо�½етики іфо�½ології.Посіб�½ик розрахова�½ий �½а викладачів та студе�½тів факультетіврома�½о-герма�½ської філології.3Fundamentals of Phonetics and PhonologyPHONETICS AS A SCIENCE.PHONEME.The study of pronunciation consists of two fields:phoneticsandphonology.Phonetics is a science, which deals with pronunciation and thephonetic structure of a language. It refers to the study of speech sounds.Pronunciation includes the system of all the phonetic means ofexpression in speech – speech sounds, word-stress, and intonation. All ofthem are important and should not be underestimated in studying alanguage.In order to understand how something works it is often useful tobreak it down into its constituent parts. The following diagram shows abreakdown of the main features of pronunciation.Features of PronunciationPhonemesConsonantsVoicedUnvoicedShortVowelsSingle Vowels(Monophthongs)© Віталій Бара�½Phonetics is a wide-ranging field, and it does not necessarily have a directconnection with the study of language itself. While the phonetic disciplineslisted above can be studied independently of one another, they are clearlyconnected: speech organs move to create sounds, which travel in soundwaves, which are received by the ears and transmitted to the brain.Phonetics as a science began to be developed in the 19thcentury. Thefactors that stimulated its development were:1. more thorough acquaintance with the functioning of the human speechapparatus;2. the investigation of many linguists who studied languages that had noalphabets;3. the compiling of alphabets for such languages.So, phonetics is a branch of linguistics, which deals with the physicalreality of speech sounds. It studies the articulation and their acoustic qualitiesand the physical characteristics and sound perception.Phonology is primarily concerned with how we interpret and systematisesounds. It deals with the system and pattern of the sounds which exist withinparticular languages. The study of the phonology of English looks at thevowels, consonants and suprasegmental features (stress and intonation) of thelanguage. Within the discipline of phonology, when we talk about vowels andconsonants, we are referring to the different sounds we make when speaking,and not the vowel and consonant letters we refer to when talking aboutspelling. Much work in phonological study deals with generalisationsconcerning the organisation and interpretation of sounds that might applyacross different languages.Phonemes, word-stress and intonation are phonetic means of semanticexpression in speech, since the substitution of one phoneme for another or analteration in word-stress changes the word itself.e.g.[bæd], [bed], [bId]Baudouin de Courtenay, professor of the Kazan University, was thefirst to expound the theory of the phoneme. In his treatise “On theComparative Study of the Grammar of Slavonic Languages” he clearlydefines the difference between a phoneme and a speech sound. He treats aphoneme as a semantically differentiating unit, and a speech sound as a unitof speech not connected with any meaning. This differentiationSuprasegmental featuresIntonationStressSentence StressDiphthongsWord StressLongPhonetic investigations may be carried out in different areas, thus aphonetician may work in one or more of the following areas:the anatomical, neurological and physiological bases of speech(known asphysiological phonetics)the actions and movements of the speech organs in producingsounds (articulatoryphonetics)the nature and acoustics of the sound waves which transmit speech(acousticphonetics)how speech is received by the ears (auditoryphonetics)how speech is perceived by the brain (perceptualphonetics4Fundamentals of Phonetics and Phonologyproved to be highly fruitful and made it possible to establish mutual relationsbetween the sound and the phoneme.So, the phoneme is the smallest articulatory unit of a given language,which can be associated with sense notions and can differentiate words.e.g. pat[pæt]pet[pet]sit[sit]seat[sIt]Phonemes are the different sounds within a language. Although there areslight differences in how individuals articulate sounds, we can still describerather accurately how each sound is produced. When considering meaning, wesee how using one sound rather than another can change the meaning of theword. It is this principle which gives us the total number of phonemes in aparticular language. For example, the wordrathas the phonemes[ræt].If wechange the middle phoneme, we get[rUt]root,a different word. But if wepronounce [r] in a slightly different way, the word doesn‟t change, and we stillunderstand that we mean the same thing. Although different people maypronounce this sound slightly differently, yet they manage to understand eachother. These different pronunciations of [r] are known asallophones.An actually pronounced speech sound is always a variant of a phoneme,which is called an allophone. Different allophones of one and the same phonemeare speech sounds, which have one or more features in common, and at the sametime differ from one another in some degree because of the influence upon themof their position, adjacent speech sounds and their purely phonetic factors.e.g. eight[eit]– eighth[eitÞ][t] in “eight” is pronounced with the tip of the tongue pressed against thealveoli. It‟s an alveolar consonant.[t] in “eighth” is pronounced with the tongue pressed against the upperteeth. It is a dental consonant.Among the variants of one and the same phoneme there‟s always one thatpreserves all the articulatory-acoustic features of the phoneme, which are listed inits phonetic definition,e.g. [t] – forelingual, apical, alveolar, plosive, voiceless consonant.It is usually the sound, which would be pronounced by a native speaker inisolation. This sound is calledprinciplevariant of the phoneme, and all the othervariants of the same phoneme are calledsubsidiary.The theory of the phoneme continued to be investigated by many otherscholars, among them D.Jones, W.F.Twaddell, E.Sapier, L.Scherba© Віталій Бара�½5 [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
